The problem of the gaseous composition of the atmosphere is one of the central questions of modern atmospheric physics. We need not consider in detail the fact that the gaseous composition, which varies considerably with height, has a vital influence on most phenomena occurring in the Earth’s atmosphere. In the upper layers of the atmosphere, there is no single problem (with the possible exception of the wind conditions) that can be solved accurately without a knowledge of the chemical nature of these layers.
As far as I know, this is the first book to appear in either Russian or foreign literature which attempts to collect and systematize the large amount of work devoted to the investigation of the composition of the Earth’s air cover. Hundreds of papers, not connected by any unifying idea—some of them old and undeservedly forgotten, others scattered throughout various journals—cannot give a complete impression of the gaseous composition of the atmosphere. The scattered nature of the material makes it necessary to spend a large amount of time and trouble just to become acquainted with the work that has been done.
The absence of a critical appraisal of the often somewhat contradictory results of various experiments has led to the inclusion of incorrect information in modern courses on atmospheric physics and in most reference books. This has happened even when dealing with the lower atmosphere, which has been most thoroughly investigated.
The recent use of rockets and artificial satellites has led to rapid progress in our exploration of the upper atmosphere. The large amount of very interesting material, which has accumulated within the short space of the last decade, needs analysis and detailed commentary. All these considerations have led me to write this monograph, in which I have tried to collect and critically discuss the existing experimental material on the chemical composition of the atmosphere.
This book deals with a series of problems connected with the investigation of the composition of the atmosphere, but it is by no means my intention to try to describe all sides of this subject. In order to avoid giving the reader a false impression of the volume of work discussed, I shall now clearly define the range covered.
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PREFACE 1
CHAPTER I. INVESTIGATIONS OF THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE
Introduction
Early geophysical investigations 9
The discovery of new gases in air the present state of knowledge of the gaseous composition of the lower atmosphere 18
Conclusion 26
CHAPTER II. INVESTIGATIONS OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE (up to a height of 30 km)
Introduction 27
Balloon ascents 28
Discovery of the stratosphere and the problem of the gravitational separation of gases 30
Early investigations of the composition of the atmosphere at high altitudes by indirect methods 32
Direct investigations in the stratosphere 33
Balloon ascents into the stratosphere 36
Sounding-balloon investigations with automatic equipment 41
Conclusion 49
CHAPTER III. INVESTIGATIONS OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE USING ROCKETS (sampling method)
Introduction 51
Gaseous composition one of the central problems of the physics of the upper atmosphere 56
Sounding rockets 57
Characteristics of rocket investigations 63
Methods and results of investigations of gaseous composition 64
Conclusion 78
CHAPTER IV. SOVIET INVESTIGATIONS OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE USING ROCKETS (sampling method)
Introduction 80
Sampling 81
Storing the samples 91
Analysis of the samples 93
Spectroscopic microanalysis of gases 95
The vacuum apparatus 101
Experimental results 106
CHAPTER V. INVESTIGATIONS OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE USING ROCKET-BORNE RADIO-FREQUENCY MASS SPECTROMETERS
Introduction 110
Characteristics of the composition of the upper atmosphere 110
The use of the radio-frequency mass spectrometer for investigating the upper atmosphere 113
American investigations on the neutral composition of the atmosphere 117
Investigations of the neutral composition of the atmosphere carried out in the Soviet Union 128
Discussion of results 133
Investigations of the ionic composition of the atmosphere carried out in the USA 136
Investigations of the ionic composition of the atmosphere carried out in the USSR 142
Conclusion 144
CHAPTER VI. INVESTIGATIONS OF THE IONIC COMPOSITION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE USING RADIO-FREQUENCY MASS SPECTROMETERS MOUNTED IN ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES (SPUTNIKS)
The use of artificial satellites for the investigation of the Earth’s upper and outer atmosphere 146
Characteristics of the method of investigation 147
Investigations of the ionic composition of the upper atmosphere 157
Discussion of the results 163
Conclusion 165
BIBLIOGRAPHY 172
APPENDIX THE CONCENTRATION OF OZONE IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Introduction 179
The variation of the overall ozone content and the study of ozone in the lower atmosphere 180
Investigations on the vertical distribution of ozone at high altitudes 187
Photochemical theory 193
Conclusion 196
Bibliography 198
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 209
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